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- Privacy Policy | Linking English
Privacy Policy تاريخ السريان: 2020-09-21 1 المقدمة مرحبًا بك في Linking English. يؤدي ربط اللغة الإنجليزية ("نحن" أو "نحن" أو "خاصتنا") إلى تشغيل link-eng.co.uk (المشار إليها فيما يلي باسم "الخدمة"). تحكم سياسة الخصوصية الخاصة بنا زيارتك إلى link-eng.co.uk ، وتشرح كيف نجمع المعلومات التي تنتج عن استخدامك لخدمتنا وحمايتها والكشف عنها. نستخدم بياناتك لتقديم الخدمة وتحسينها. باستخدام الخدمة ، فإنك توافق على جمع واستخدام المعلومات وفقًا لهذه السياسة. ما لم يتم تحديد خلاف ذلك في سياسة الخصوصية هذه ، فإن المصطلحات المستخدمة في سياسة الخصوصية هذه لها نفس المعاني كما في الشروط والأحكام الخاصة بنا. تحكم الشروط والأحكام الخاصة بنا ("الشروط") جميع استخدامات خدمتنا وتشكل جنبًا إلى جنب مع سياسة الخصوصية اتفاقك معنا ("الاتفاقية"). 2. التعاريف SERVICE تعني موقع link-eng.co.uk الذي تديره Linking English. البيانات الشخصية تعني البيانات المتعلقة بفرد على قيد الحياة يمكن تحديد هويته من تلك البيانات (أو من تلك وغيرها من المعلومات سواء كانت بحوزتنا أو من المحتمل أن تكون في حوزتنا). بيانات الاستخدام هي البيانات التي يتم جمعها تلقائيًا إما عن طريق استخدام الخدمة أو من البنية التحتية للخدمة نفسها (على سبيل المثال ، مدة زيارة الصفحة). ملفات تعريف الارتباط هي ملفات صغيرة مخزنة على جهازك (الكمبيوتر أو الجهاز المحمول). وحدة التحكم في البيانات تعني شخصًا طبيعيًا أو اعتباريًا (إما بمفرده أو بشكل مشترك أو بالاشتراك مع أشخاص آخرين) يحدد الأغراض والطريقة التي تتم بها معالجة أي بيانات شخصية أو يتعين معالجتها. لغرض سياسة الخصوصية هذه ، نحن مراقب بيانات لبياناتك. معالجات البيانات (أو مقدمو الخدمة) تعني أي شخص طبيعي أو اعتباري يقوم بمعالجة البيانات نيابة عن وحدة التحكم في البيانات. قد نستخدم خدمات مختلف مقدمي الخدمة من أجل معالجة بياناتك بشكل أكثر فعالية. موضوع البيانات هو أي فرد على قيد الحياة يكون موضوع البيانات الشخصية. المستخدم هو الفرد الذي يستخدم خدمتنا. يتوافق المستخدم مع موضوع البيانات ، وهو موضوع البيانات الشخصية. 3. جمع المعلومات واستخدامها نقوم بجمع عدة أنواع مختلفة من المعلومات لأغراض مختلفة لتوفير وتحسين خدماتنا لك. 4. أنواع البيانات المجمعة بيانات شخصية أثناء استخدام خدمتنا ، قد نطلب منك تزويدنا بمعلومات تعريف شخصية معينة يمكن استخدامها للاتصال بك أو التعرف عليك ("البيانات الشخصية"). قد تتضمن معلومات التعريف الشخصية ، على سبيل المثال لا الحصر: 0.1. عنوان بريد الكتروني 0.2. الاسم الأول واسم العائلة 0.3 رقم التليفون 0.4 العنوان ، البلد ، الولاية ، المقاطعة ، الرمز البريدي / الرمز البريدي ، المدينة 0.5 ملفات تعريف الارتباط وبيانات الاستخدام قد نستخدم بياناتك الشخصية للاتصال بك من خلال النشرات الإخبارية والمواد التسويقية أو الترويجية وغيرها من المعلومات التي قد تهمك. يمكنك إلغاء الاشتراك في تلقي أي من هذه الاتصالات أو جميعها منا باتباع رابط إلغاء الاشتراك. بيانات الاستخدام قد نقوم أيضًا بجمع المعلومات التي يرسلها متصفحك عندما تزور خدمتنا أو عندما تصل إلى الخدمة عن طريق أو من خلال أي جهاز ("بيانات الاستخدام"). قد تتضمن بيانات الاستخدام هذه معلومات مثل عنوان بروتوكول الإنترنت لجهاز الكمبيوتر الخاص بك (مثل عنوان IP) ، ونوع المتصفح ، وإصدار المتصفح ، وصفحات الخدمة التي تزورها ، ووقت وتاريخ زيارتك ، والوقت الذي تقضيه على تلك الصفحات ، فريد معرّفات الجهاز وبيانات التشخيص الأخرى. عند الوصول إلى الخدمة باستخدام جهاز ، قد تتضمن بيانات الاستخدام هذه معلومات مثل نوع الجهاز الذي تستخدمه ، والمعرف الفريد لجهازك ، وعنوان IP الخاص بجهازك ، ونظام تشغيل جهازك ، ونوع متصفح الإنترنت الذي تستخدمه ، والجهاز الفريد. المعرفات والبيانات التشخيصية الأخرى. تتبع بيانات ملفات تعريف الارتباط نحن نستخدم ملفات تعريف الارتباط وتقنيات التتبع المماثلة لتتبع النشاط على خدمتنا ونحتفظ بمعلومات معينة. ملفات تعريف الارتباط هي ملفات تحتوي على كمية صغيرة من البيانات التي قد تتضمن معرفًا فريدًا مجهول الهوية. يتم إرسال ملفات تعريف الارتباط إلى متصفحك من موقع ويب وتخزينها على جهازك. تُستخدم تقنيات التتبع الأخرى أيضًا مثل الإشارات والعلامات والنصوص لجمع المعلومات وتتبعها ولتحسين خدمتنا وتحليلها. يمكنك توجيه متصفحك لرفض جميع ملفات تعريف الارتباط أو للإشارة إلى وقت إرسال ملف تعريف الارتباط. ومع ذلك ، إذا كنت لا تقبل ملفات تعريف الارتباط ، فقد لا تتمكن من استخدام بعض أجزاء من خدمتنا. أمثلة على ملفات تعريف الارتباط التي نستخدمها: 0.1. ملفات تعريف ارتباط الجلسة: نستخدم ملفات تعريف ارتباط الجلسة لتشغيل خدمتنا. 0.2. ملفات تعريف الارتباط المفضلة: نستخدم ملفات تعريف الارتباط المفضلة لتذكر تفضيلاتك والإعدادات المختلفة. 0.3 ملفات تعريف الارتباط الأمنية: نستخدم ملفات تعريف الارتباط الأمنية لأغراض أمنية. 0.4 ملفات تعريف الارتباط الإعلانية: تُستخدم ملفات تعريف الارتباط الإعلانية لخدمتك مع الإعلانات التي قد تكون ذات صلة بك وباهتماماتك. بيانات أخرى أثناء استخدام خدمتنا ، قد نقوم أيضًا بجمع المعلومات التالية: الجنس ، والعمر ، وتاريخ الميلاد ، ومكان الميلاد ، وتفاصيل جواز السفر ، والجنسية ، والتسجيل في مكان الإقامة والعنوان الفعلي ، ورقم الهاتف (العمل ، والجوال) ، وتفاصيل المستندات بشأن التعليم ، والمؤهلات ، والتدريب المهني ، واتفاقيات التوظيف ، واتفاقيات NDA ، ومعلومات عن المكافآت والتعويضات ، ومعلومات عن الحالة الاجتماعية ، وأفراد الأسرة ، ورقم الضمان الاجتماعي (أو هوية دافع الضرائب الأخرى) ، وموقع المكتب ، وبيانات أخرى. 5. استخدام البيانات يستخدم ربط اللغة الإنجليزية البيانات التي تم جمعها لأغراض مختلفة: 0.1. لتقديم خدماتنا والحفاظ عليها ؛ 0.2. لإعلامك عن تغييرات لخدمتنا؛ 0.3 للسماح لك بالمشاركة في الميزات التفاعلية لخدمتنا عندما تختار القيام بذلك ؛ 0.4 لتقديم دعم العملاء ؛ 0.5 لجمع التحليلات أو المعلومات القيمة حتى نتمكن من تحسين خدمتنا ؛ 0.6. لمراقبة استخدام خدمتنا ؛ 0.7. لاكتشاف ومنع ومعالجة القضايا الفنية ؛ 0.8 لتحقيق أي غرض آخر تقدمه من أجله ؛ 0.9 لتنفيذ التزاماتنا وإنفاذ حقوقنا الناشئة عن أي عقود مبرمة بينك وبيننا ، بما في ذلك الفواتير والتحصيل ؛ 0.10. لتزويدك بإشعارات حول حسابك و / أو اشتراكك ، بما في ذلك إشعارات انتهاء الصلاحية والتجديد ، وإرشادات البريد الإلكتروني ، وما إلى ذلك ؛ 0.11. لتزويدك بالأخبار والعروض الخاصة والمعلومات العامة حول السلع والخدمات والأحداث الأخرى التي نقدمها والتي تشبه تلك التي اشتريتها بالفعل أو استفسرت عنها ما لم تكن قد اخترت عدم تلقي هذه المعلومات ؛ 0.12. بأي طريقة أخرى قد نصفها عند تقديم المعلومات ؛ 0.13. لأي غرض آخر بموافقتك. 6. الاحتفاظ بالبيانات سنحتفظ ببياناتك الشخصية فقط طالما كان ذلك ضروريًا للأغراض المنصوص عليها في سياسة الخصوصية هذه. سنحتفظ ببياناتك الشخصية ونستخدمها بالقدر اللازم للامتثال لالتزاماتنا القانونية (على سبيل المثال ، إذا كنا مطالبين بالاحتفاظ ببياناتك للامتثال للقوانين المعمول بها) ، وحل النزاعات ، وفرض اتفاقياتنا وسياساتنا القانونية. سنحتفظ أيضًا ببيانات الاستخدام لأغراض التحليل الداخلي. يتم الاحتفاظ ببيانات الاستخدام عمومًا لفترة أقصر ، إلا في حالة استخدام هذه البيانات لتعزيز الأمان أو لتحسين وظائف خدمتنا ، أو نحن ملزمون قانونًا بالاحتفاظ بهذه البيانات لفترات زمنية أطول. 7. نقل البيانات قد يتم نقل معلوماتك ، بما في ذلك البيانات الشخصية ، إلى أجهزة الكمبيوتر الموجودة خارج ولايتك أو مقاطعتك أو بلدك أو الولاية القضائية الحكومية الأخرى التي قد تختلف فيها قوانين حماية البيانات عن تلك الموجودة في ولايتك القضائية. إذا كنت متواجدًا خارج البحرين واخترت تقديم معلومات إلينا ، فيرجى ملاحظة أننا نقوم بنقل البيانات ، بما في ذلك البيانات الشخصية ، إلى البحرين ومعالجتها هناك. موافقتك على سياسة الخصوصية هذه متبوعة بتقديمك لهذه المعلومات تمثل موافقتك على هذا النقل. سيتخذ ربط اللغة الإنجليزية جميع الخطوات اللازمة بشكل معقول لضمان التعامل مع بياناتك بشكل آمن ووفقًا لسياسة الخصوصية هذه ولن يتم نقل بياناتك الشخصية إلى منظمة أو دولة ما لم تكن هناك ضوابط كافية في مكانها بما في ذلك الأمان من بياناتك وغيرها من المعلومات الشخصية. 8. الإفصاح عن البيانات قد نكشف عن المعلومات الشخصية التي نجمعها ، أو تقدم: 0.1. الإفصاح عن جهات إنفاذ القانون. في ظل ظروف معينة ، قد يُطلب منا الكشف عن بياناتك الشخصية إذا طُلب منا ذلك بموجب القانون أو استجابة لطلبات صحيحة من قبل السلطات العامة. 0.2. المعاملات التجارية. إذا شاركنا نحن أو الشركات التابعة لنا في عملية دمج أو استحواذ أو بيع أصول ، فقد يتم نقل بياناتك الشخصية. 0.3 حالات اخرى. قد نكشف عن معلوماتك أيضًا: 0.3.1. إلى الشركات التابعة لنا والشركات التابعة لنا ؛ 0.3.2. للمقاولين ومقدمي الخدمات والأطراف الثالثة الأخرى التي نستخدمها لدعم أعمالنا ؛ 0.3.3. لتحقيق الغرض الذي تقدمه من أجله ؛ 0.3.4. لغرض تضمين شعار شركتك على موقعنا ؛ 0.3.5. لأي غرض آخر نكشف عنه عند تقديم المعلومات ؛ 0.3.6. بموافقتك في أي حالات أخرى ؛ 0.3.7. إذا كنا نعتقد أن الإفصاح ضروري أو مناسب لحماية حقوق أو ممتلكات أو سلامة الشركة أو عملائنا أو غيرهم. 9. أمن البيانات أمان بياناتك مهم بالنسبة لنا ولكن تذكر أنه لا توجد وسيلة نقل عبر الإنترنت أو طريقة تخزين إلكتروني آمنة بنسبة 100٪. بينما نسعى جاهدين لاستخدام وسائل مقبولة تجاريًا لحماية بياناتك الشخصية ، لا يمكننا ضمان أمنها المطلق. 10. حقوق حماية البيانات الخاصة بك بموجب اللائحة العامة لحماية البيانات (GDPR) إذا كنت مقيمًا في الاتحاد الأوروبي (EU) والمنطقة الاقتصادية الأوروبية (EEA) ، فلديك بعض حقوق حماية البيانات التي يغطيها القانون العام لحماية البيانات (GDPR). نهدف إلى اتخاذ خطوات معقولة للسماح لك بتصحيح أو تعديل أو حذف أو تقييد استخدام بياناتك الشخصية. إذا كنت ترغب في إبلاغك بالبيانات الشخصية التي نحتفظ بها عنك وإذا كنت تريد إزالتها من أنظمتنا ، فيرجى مراسلتنا عبر البريد الإلكتروني على support@link-eng.co.uk. في ظروف معينة ، تتمتع بحقوق حماية البيانات التالية: 0.1. الحق في الوصول إلى المعلومات التي لدينا عنك أو تحديثها أو حذفها ؛ 0.2. حق التصحيح. لديك الحق في تصحيح معلوماتك إذا كانت هذه المعلومات غير دقيقة أو غير كاملة ؛ 0.3 الحق في الاعتراض. لديك الحق في الاعتراض على معالجتنا لبياناتك الشخصية ؛ 0.4 حق التقييد. لديك الحق في طلب تقييد معالجة معلوماتك الشخصية ؛ 0.5 الحق في نقل البيانات. لديك الحق في الحصول على نسخة من بياناتك الشخصية بتنسيق منظم وقابل للقراءة آليًا وشائع الاستخدام ؛ 0.6. الحق في سحب الموافقة. لديك أيضًا الحق في سحب موافقتك في أي وقت حيث نعتمد على موافقتك لمعالجة معلوماتك الشخصية ؛ يرجى ملاحظة أننا قد نطلب منك التحقق من هويتك قبل الرد على هذه الطلبات. يرجى ملاحظة أننا قد لا نتمكن من تقديم الخدمة بدون بعض البيانات الضرورية. لديك الحق في تقديم شكوى إلى هيئة حماية البيانات بشأن جمعنا لبياناتك الشخصية واستخدامها. لمزيد من المعلومات ، يرجى الاتصال بهيئة حماية البيانات المحلية في المنطقة الاقتصادية الأوروبية (EEA). 11. حقوق حماية البيانات الخاصة بك بموجب قانون حماية الخصوصية في ولاية كاليفورنيا (CalOPPA) CalOPPA هو أول قانون ولاية في الدولة يطالب المواقع التجارية والخدمات عبر الإنترنت بنشر سياسة الخصوصية. يمتد نطاق القانون إلى ما هو أبعد من ولاية كاليفورنيا ليطلب من شخص أو شركة في الولايات المتحدة (ويمكن تصوره للعالم) تشغيل مواقع الويب التي تجمع معلومات التعريف الشخصية من مستهلكي كاليفورنيا لنشر سياسة خصوصية واضحة على موقعها على الويب توضح بالضبط المعلومات التي يتم جمعها وتلك الأفراد الذين يتم مشاركتها معهم ، والامتثال لهذه السياسة. وفقًا لـ CalOPPA ، نوافق على ما يلي: 0.1. يمكن للمستخدمين زيارة موقعنا بشكل مجهول ؛ 0.2. يشتمل رابط سياسة الخصوصية الخاصة بنا على كلمة "الخصوصية" ، ويمكن العثور عليه بسهولة على الصفحة الرئيسية لموقعنا على الويب ؛ 0.3 سيتم إخطار المستخدمين بأي تغييرات في سياسة الخصوصية على صفحة سياسة الخصوصية الخاصة بنا ؛ 0.4 يمكن للمستخدمين تغيير معلوماتهم الشخصية عن طريق مراسلتنا عبر البريد الإلكتروني على support@link-eng.co.uk. سياستنا بشأن إشارات "عدم التعقب": نحن نحترم إشارات عدم التتبع ولا نتتبع ملفات تعريف الارتباط أو نزرعها أو نستخدم الإعلانات عندما تكون آلية متصفح عدم التعقب في مكانها الصحيح. عدم التعقب هو تفضيل يمكنك تعيينه في متصفح الويب الخاص بك لإعلام مواقع الويب بأنك لا تريد أن يتم تعقبك. يمكنك تمكين أو تعطيل "عدم التعقب" من خلال زيارة صفحة "التفضيلات" أو "الإعدادات" في متصفح الويب الخاص بك. 12. حقوق حماية البيانات الخاصة بك بموجب قانون خصوصية المستهلك في كاليفورنيا (CCPA) إذا كنت مقيمًا في كاليفورنيا ، فيحق لك معرفة البيانات التي نجمعها عنك ، واطلب حذف بياناتك وعدم بيعها (مشاركتها). لممارسة حقوق حماية البيانات الخاصة بك ، يمكنك تقديم طلبات معينة ومطالبتنا بما يلي: 0.1. ما هي المعلومات الشخصية التي لدينا عنك. إذا قمت بتقديم هذا الطلب ، سنعود إليك: 0.0.1. فئات المعلومات الشخصية التي جمعناها عنك. 0.0.2. فئات المصادر التي نجمع منها معلوماتك الشخصية. 0.0.3. الغرض التجاري أو التجاري لجمع أو بيع معلوماتك الشخصية. 0.0.4. فئات الجهات الخارجية التي نشارك معها المعلومات الشخصية. 0.0.5. الأجزاء المحددة من المعلومات الشخصية التي جمعناها عنك. 0.0.6. قائمة بفئات المعلومات الشخصية التي قمنا ببيعها ، إلى جانب فئة أي شركة أخرى قمنا ببيعها لها. إذا لم نقم ببيع معلوماتك الشخصية ، فسنبلغك بهذه الحقيقة. 0.0.7. قائمة بفئات المعلومات الشخصية التي كشفنا عنها لغرض تجاري ، إلى جانب فئة أي شركة أخرى شاركناها معها. يرجى ملاحظة أنه يحق لك أن تطلب منا تزويدك بهذه المعلومات حتى مرتين في فترة اثني عشر شهرًا. عند تقديم هذا الطلب ، قد تقتصر المعلومات المقدمة على المعلومات الشخصية التي جمعناها عنك في الاثني عشر شهرًا الماضية. 0.2. لحذف معلوماتك الشخصية. إذا قمت بتقديم هذا الطلب ، فسنحذف المعلومات الشخصية التي نحتفظ بها عنك اعتبارًا من تاريخ طلبك من سجلاتنا ونوجه أي من مزودي الخدمة للقيام بالمثل. في بعض الحالات ، يمكن أن يتم الحذف من خلال إلغاء تعريف المعلومات. إذا اخترت حذف معلوماتك الشخصية ، فقد لا تتمكن من استخدام وظائف معينة تتطلب تشغيل معلوماتك الشخصية. 0.3 للتوقف عن بيع معلوماتك الشخصية. نحن لا نبيع أو نؤجر معلوماتك الشخصية لأي طرف ثالث لأي غرض من الأغراض. نحن لا نبيع معلوماتك الشخصية مقابل مادي. ومع ذلك ، في بعض الظروف ، يمكن اعتبار نقل المعلومات الشخصية إلى طرف ثالث ، أو داخل مجموعة شركاتنا ، دون مقابل نقدي ، بمثابة "بيع" بموجب قانون ولاية كاليفورنيا. أنت المالك الوحيد لبياناتك الشخصية ويمكنك طلب الكشف عنها أو حذفها في أي وقت. إذا قمت بتقديم طلب لوقف بيع معلوماتك الشخصية ، فسوف نتوقف عن إجراء عمليات النقل هذه. يرجى ملاحظة أنه إذا طلبت منا حذف بياناتك أو التوقف عن بيعها ، فقد يؤثر ذلك على تجربتك معنا ، وقد لا تتمكن من المشاركة في بعض البرامج أو خدمات العضوية التي تتطلب استخدام معلوماتك الشخصية لتعمل. ولكن في أي ظرف من الظروف ، سوف نميز ضدك بسبب ممارستك لحقوقك. لممارسة حقوق حماية بيانات كاليفورنيا الموضحة أعلاه ، يرجى إرسال طلبك (طلباتك) عبر البريد الإلكتروني: support@link-eng.co.uk. حقوق حماية البيانات الخاصة بك ، الموضحة أعلاه ، مغطاة بقانون حماية خصوصية المستهلك في كاليفورنيا ، باختصار لقانون خصوصية المستهلك في كاليفورنيا. لمعرفة المزيد ، قم بزيارة الموقع الرسمي للمعلومات التشريعية لولاية كاليفورنيا. دخلت CCPA حيز التنفيذ في 01/01/2020. 13. مقدمو الخدمة يجوز لنا توظيف شركات وأفراد من أطراف ثالثة لتسهيل خدمتنا ("مزودي الخدمة") ، أو تقديم الخدمة نيابة عنا ، أو أداء الخدمات المتعلقة بالخدمة أو مساعدتنا في تحليل كيفية استخدام خدمتنا. هذه الأطراف الثالثة لديها حق الوصول إلى بياناتك الشخصية فقط لأداء هذه المهام نيابة عنا وهي ملزمة بعدم الكشف عنها أو استخدامها لأي غرض آخر. 14. التحليلات قد نستخدم مزودي خدمة تابعين لجهات خارجية لمراقبة وتحليل استخدام خدمتنا. 15. أدوات CI / CD قد نستخدم مزودي خدمة من جهات خارجية لأتمتة عملية تطوير خدمتنا. 16. الإعلان قد نستخدم مزودي خدمة من جهات خارجية لعرض إعلانات لك للمساعدة في دعم خدمتنا وصيانتها. 17. تجديد النشاط التسويقي السلوكي قد نستخدم خدمات تجديد النشاط التسويقي للإعلان لك على مواقع الطرف الثالث بعد زيارتك لخدمتنا. نستخدم نحن وموردينا الخارجيين ملفات تعريف الارتباط للإبلاغ عن الإعلانات وتحسينها وعرضها بناءً على زياراتك السابقة لخدمتنا. 18. روابط لمواقع أخرى قد تحتوي خدمتنا على روابط لمواقع أخرى لا نقوم بتشغيلها. إذا قمت بالنقر فوق ارتباط جهة خارجية ، فسيتم توجيهك إلى موقع الطرف الثالث. ننصحك بشدة بمراجعة سياسة الخصوصية لكل موقع تزوره. ليس لدينا أي سيطرة ولا نتحمل أي مسؤولية عن المحتوى أو سياسات الخصوصية أو الممارسات الخاصة بأي مواقع أو خدمات خاصة بطرف ثالث. على سبيل المثال ، تم وضع سياسة الخصوصية المحددة باستخدام PolicyMaker.io ، وهي أداة مجانية تساعد في إنشاء مستندات قانونية عالية الجودة. يُعد مُنشئ سياسة الخصوصية في PolicyMaker أداة سهلة الاستخدام لإنشاء سياسة خصوصية للمدونة أو موقع الويب أو متجر التجارة الإلكترونية أو تطبيق الجوّال. 19. خصوصية الأطفال خدماتنا غير مخصصة للاستخدام من قبل الأطفال الذين تقل أعمارهم عن 18 عامًا ("الطفل" أو "الأطفال"). نحن لا نجمع عن عمد معلومات تعريف شخصية من الأطفال دون سن 18 عامًا. إذا علمت أن أحد الأطفال قد زودنا ببيانات شخصية ، فيرجى الاتصال بنا. إذا علمنا أننا جمعنا بيانات شخصية من الأطفال دون التحقق من موافقة الوالدين ، فإننا نتخذ خطوات لإزالة تلك المعلومات من خوادمنا. 20. التغييرات في سياسة الخصوصية هذه قد نقوم بتحديث سياسة الخصوصية الخاصة بنا من وقت لآخر. سنخطرك بأي تغييرات عن طريق نشر سياسة الخصوصية الجديدة على هذه الصفحة. سنخبرك عبر البريد الإلكتروني و / أو إشعارًا بارزًا على خدمتنا ، قبل أن يصبح التغيير ساريًا وتحديث "التاريخ الفعلي" في الجزء العلوي من سياسة الخصوصية هذه. يُنصح بمراجعة سياسة الخصوصية هذه بشكل دوري لمعرفة أي تغييرات. تسري التغييرات التي تطرأ على سياسة الخصوصية هذه عند نشرها على هذه الصفحة. 21. اتصل بنا إذا كانت لديك أي أسئلة حول سياسة الخصوصية هذه ، فيرجى الاتصال بنا عبر البريد الإلكتروني: support@link-eng.co.uk. تم إنشاء سياسة الخصوصية هذه لـ link-eng.co.uk بواسطة PolicyMaker.io في 2020-09-21.
- AOG Experienced info | Linking English
Any Other Grammar Infographics Experienced Experienced Conditional Sentences Modal Perfect 1
- Writing Conclusions | Linking English
Writing Conclusions Conclusions are shorter sections of academic texts which usually serve two functions. The first is to summarise and bring together the main areas covered in the writing, which might be called "looking back"; and the second is to give a final comment or judgement on this. The final comment may also include making suggestions for improvement and speculating on future directions. In dissertations and research papers, conclusions tend to be more complex and will also include sections on significance of the findings and recommendations for future work. Conclusions may be optional in research articles where consolidation of the study and general implications are covered in the Discussion section. However, they are usually expected in dissertations and essays. Summarising the content This paper has given an account of and the reasons for the widespread use of X .... This essay has argued that X is the best instrument to .... This assignment has explained the central importance of X in Y. This dissertation has investigated .... Restatement of aims (research) This study set out to determine .... The present study was designed to determine the effect of .... In this investigation, the aim was to assess .... The purpose of the current study was to determine .... This project was undertaken to design .... and evaluate .... Returning to the hypothesis/question posed at the beginning of this study, it is now possible to state that .... Summarising the findings (research) This study has shown that .... These findings suggest that in general .... One of the more significant findings to emerge from this study is that .... It was also shown that.... This study has found that generally .... The following conclusions can be drawn from the present study .... T he relevance of X is clearly supported by the current findings. This study/research has shown that .... The second major finding was that .... The results of this investigation show that .... The most obvious finding to emerge from this study is that .... X, Y and Z emerged as reliable predictors of .... Multiple regression analysis revealed that t he .... Suggesting implications The evidence from this study suggests that .... The results of this study indicate that .... T he results of this research support the idea that .... In general, therefore, it seems that .... Taken together, these results suggest that .... An implication of this is the possibility that .... The findings of this study suggest that .... Significance of the findings (research contribution) This work contributes to existing knowledge X by providing .... This is the first study reporting an advantage in those who .... This is the largest study so far documenting a delayed onset of .... The X that we have identified therefore assists in our understanding of the role of .... These findings enhance our understanding of .... T his research will serve as a base for future studies and .... The current findings add substantially to our understanding of .... The current findings add to a growing body of literature on .... The study has gone some way towards enhancing our understanding of .... The methods used for this X may be applied to other Xs elsewhere in the world. The present study, however, makes several noteworthy contributions to .... The empirical findings in this study provide a new understanding of …. The findings from this study make several contributions to the current literature. First,… The present study provides additional evidence with respect to …. Taken together, these findings suggest a role for X in promoting Y. The present study confirms previous findings and contributes additional evidence that suggests .... Significance of the findings with a qualification Whilst this study did not confirm X, it did partially substantiate .... Despite its exploratory nature, this study offers some insight into .... Although the current study is based on a small sample of participants, the findings suggest that …. Notwithstanding these limitations, the study suggests that …. Limitations of the current study (research) Finally, a number of important limitations need to be considered. First, .... The generalisability of these results is subject to certain limitations. For instance, …. A number of caveats need to be noted regarding the present study. The most important limitation lies in the fact that .... The current investigation was limited by .... The current study was unable to analyse these variables. The current research was not specifically designed to evaluate factors related to .... The current study has only examined .... The project was limited in several ways. First, the project used a convenience sample that .... However, with a small sample size, caution must be applied, as the findings might not be transferable to .... The sample was nationally representative of X but would tend to miss people who were .... A limitation of this study is that the numbers of patients and controls were relatively small. Thirdly, the study did not evaluate the use of .... However, these findings are limited by the use of a cross sectional design. The findings in this report are subject to at least three limitations. First, these data apply only to …. An issue that was not addressed in this study was whether…. One source of weakness in this study which could hare affected the measurements of was that .... Several limitations to this pilot study need to be acknowledged. The sample size is ..... The main weakness of this study was the paucity of …. These results may not be applicable to …. Recommendations for further work (research) This research has thrown up many questions in need of further investigation. Further work needs to be done to establish whether .... It is recommended that further research be undertaken in the following areas: Further experimental investigations are needed to estimate .... What is now needed is a cross-national study involving .... More broadly, research is also needed to determine .... It is suggested that the association of these factors is investigated in future studies. Further research might explore/investigate .... Further research in this field/regarding the role of X would be of great help in .... Further investigation and experimentation into X is strongly recommended. A number of possible future studies using the same experimental set up are apparent. It would be interesting to assess the effects of .... More information on X would help us to establish a greater degree of accuracy on this matter. If the debate is to be moved forward, a better understanding of .... needs to be developed. I suggest that before X is introduced, a study similar to this one should be carried out on .... These findings provide the following insights for future research: .... Considerably more work will need to be done to determine .... Future trials should assess a full selective decontamination regimen including. More research is needed to better understand when implementation ends and .... It would be interesting to compare experiences of individuals within the same … group. A further study could assess …. A future study investigating X would be very interesting. The issue of X is an intriguing one which could be usefully explored in further research. Future research should therefore concentrate on the investigation of …. More research is required on .... Large randomised controlled trials could provide more definitive evidence. Implications/recommendations for practice or policy These findings suggest several courses of action for .... An implication of these findings is that both X and Y should be taken into account when .... The findings of this study have a number of important implications for future practice. There is, therefore, a definite need for .... T here are a number of important changes which need to be made. Another important practical implication is that .... Moreover, more X should be made available to .... Other types of X could include : a), b). .... Unless governments adopt X, Y will not be attained. This information can be used to develop targetted interventions aimed at .... A reasonable approach to tackle this issue could be to .... Taken together, these findings do not support strong recommendations to ....
- Academic Verbs of Purpose | Linking English
Academic Verbs of Purpose Purpose Verbs To show analysis analyse, appraise, define, diagnose, explore, identify, investigate, observe To summarize assess, conclude, feature, highlight To indicate control (to be stable or to maintain at a level) constrain, control, govern, influence, inhibit, limit, maintain, prohibit, regulate, secure To discuss findings attest, confirm, contend, demonstrate, document, indicate, reveal To state comment, convey, elaborate, establish, identify, propose To show increase advance, development, enlarge, exceed, extend, facilitate, improve, increment, maximise To show decrease alleviate, cease, decline, depress, descent, deteriorate, minimize, subside, reduce To show change alter, accommodate, difference, evolve, fluctuate, generate, transform, transition, vary To indicate information in a figure depict, display, illustrate, portray, reveal To indicate information in a table classify, enumerate, gives, lists, presents, summarizes To stress that a task has been performed in-depth adequately, comprehensively, exhaustively, extensively, thoroughly To show parts comprise, compose of, constitute, encompass, include, incorporate To indicate a negative stand challenge, contradict, disagree, dispute, reject, question To indicate a positive stand confirm, compliment, corroborate, substantiate, support, uphold, validate, verify To show approximation approximate, estimate, resemble, predict Download PDF
- CARS Criteria for Evaluating Sources | Linking English
CARS A Criteria for Evaluating Sources of Information CARS Overview Evaluating Internet Research Sources "The central work of life is interpretation." --Proverb Introduction The Diversity of Information Information is a Commodity Available in Many Flavors Think about the magazine section in your local grocery store. If you reach out with your eyes closed and grab the first magazine you touch, you are about as likely to get a supermarket tabloid as you are a respected journal (actually more likely, since many respected journals don't fare well in grocery stores). Now imagine that your grocer is so accommodating that he lets anyone in town print up a magazine and put it in the magazine section. Now if you reach out blindly, you might get the Elvis Lives with Aliens Gazette just as easily as Atlantic Monthly or Time. Welcome to the Internet. As I hope my analogy makes clear, there is an extremely wide variety of material on the Internet, ranging in its accuracy, reliability, and value. Unlike most traditional information media (books, magazines, organizational documents), no one has to approve the content before it is made public. It's your job as a searcher, then, to evaluate what you locate, in order to determine whether it suits your needs. Information Exists on a Continuum of Reliability and Quality Information is everywhere on the Internet, existing in large quantities and continuously being created and revised. This information exists in a large variety of kinds (facts, opinions, stories, interpretations, statistics)and is created for many purposes (to inform, to persuade, to sell, to present a viewpoint, and to create or change an attitude or belief). For each of these various kinds and purposes, information exists on many levels of quality or reliability. It ranges from very good to very bad and includes every shade in between. Getting Started: Screening Information Pre-evaluation The first stage of evaluating your sources takes place before you do any searching. Take a minute to ask yourself what exactly you are looking for. Do you want facts, opinions (authoritative or just anyone's), reasoned arguments, statistics, narratives, eyewitness reports, descriptions? Is the purpose of your research to get new ideas, to find either factual or reasoned support for a position, to survey opinion, or something else? Once you decide on this, you will be able to screen sources much more quickly by testing them against your research goal. If, for example, you are writing a research paper, and if you are looking for both facts and well-argued opinions to support or challenge a position, you will know which sources can be quickly passed by and which deserve a second look, simply by asking whether each source appears to offer facts and well-argued opinions, or just unsupported claims. Select Sources Likely to be Reliable Becoming proficient at selecting sources will require experience, of course, but even a beginning researcher can take a few minutes to ask, "What source or what kind of source would be the most credible for providing information in this particular case?" Which sources are likely to be fair, objective, lacking hidden motives, showing quality control? It is important to keep these considerations in mind, so that you will not simply take the opinion of the first source or two you can locate. By thinking about these issues while searching, you will be able to identify suspicious or questionable sources more readily. With so many sources to choose from in a typical search, there is no reason to settle for unreliable material. Source Selection Tip: Try to select sources that offer as much of the following information as possible: Author's Name Author's Title or Position Author's Organizational Affiliation Date of Page Creation or Version Author's Contact Information Some of the Indicators of Information Quality Evaluating Information: The Tests of Information Quality Reliable Information is Power You may have heard that "knowledge is power," or that information, the raw material of knowledge, is power. But the truth is that only some information is power: reliable information. Information serves as the basis for beliefs, decisions, choices, and understanding our world. If we make a decision based on wrong or unreliable information, we do not have power--we have defeat. If we eat something harmful that we believe to be safe, we can become ill; if we avoid something good that we believe to be harmful, we have needlessly restricted the enjoyment of our lives. The same thing applies to every decision to travel, purchase, or act, and every attempt to understand. Source Evaluation is an Art Source evaluation--the determination of information quality--is something of an art. That is, there is no single perfect indicator of reliability, truthfulness, or value. Instead, you must make an inference from a collection of clues or indicators, based on the use you plan to make of your source. If, for example, what you need is a reasoned argument, then a source with a clear, well-argued position can stand on its own, without the need for a prestigious author to support it. On the other hand, if you need a judgment to support (or rebut) some position, then that judgment will be strengthened if it comes from a respected source. If you want reliable facts, then using facts from a source that meets certain criteria of quality will help assure the probability that those facts are indeed reliable. The CARS Checklist The CARS Checklist (Credibility, Accuracy, Reasonableness, Support) is designed for ease of learning and use. Few sources will meet every criterion in the list, and even those that do may not possess the highest level of quality possible. But if you learn to use the criteria in this list, you will be much more likely to separate the high quality information from the poor quality information. C redibility A ccuracy R easonableness S upport Credibility Credibility Because people have always made important decisions based on information, evidence of authenticity and reliability--or credibility, believability--has always been important. If you read an article saying that the area where you live will experience a major earthquake in the next six months, it is important that you should know whether or not to believe the information. Some questions you might ask would include, What about this source makes it believable (or not)? How does this source know this information? Why should I believe this source over another? As you can see, the key to credibility is the question of trust. There are several tests you can apply to a source to help you judge how credible and useful it will be: Author's Credentials The author or source of the information should show some evidence of being knowledgeable, reliable, and truthful. Here are some clues: • Author's education, training, and/or experience in a field relevant to the information. Look for biographical information, the author's title or position of employment • Author provides contact information (email or snail mail address, phone number) • Organizational authorship from a known and respected organization (corporate, governmental, or non-profit) • Author's reputation or standing among peers. • Author's position (job function, title) Evidence of Quality Control Most scholarly journal articles pass through a peer review process, whereby several readers must examine and approve content before it is published. Statements issued in the name of an organization have almost always been seen and approved by several people. (But note the difference between, "Allan Thornton, employee of the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Agency, says that a new ice age is near," and "The National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Agency said today that a new ice age is near." The employee is speaking for himself, whereas a statement in the name of NOAA represents the official position of NOAA.) Evidence of quality control of Internet material includes these items: • Information presented on organizational web sites • On-line journals that use refereeing (peer review) by editors or others • Postings of information taken from books or journals that have a quality control process Metainformation Metainformation is information about information. Information workers (sometimes called knowledge workers) all over the world are constantly poring over, processing, and evaluating information--and making notes. As the challenges produced by the increasing quantity of information continue, access to high quality metainformation will become increasingly important. Metainformation can take many forms, but there are two basic types, summary and evaluative. Summary metainformation includes all the shortened forms of information, such as abstracts, content summaries, or even tables of contents. This type of metainformation gives us a quick glance at what a work is about and allows us to consider many different sources without having to go through them completely. Evaluative metainformation includes all the types that provide some judgment or analysis of content. This type includes recommendations, ratings, reviews, and commentaries. Even the search results order of pages from a search engine like Google represents a type of evaluative metainformation, since pages are ranked in part by the number of other pages linked to them (and hence "voting" for them in some sense). And, of course, these two types can be combined, resulting in the best form of metainformation, providing us with a quick overview and some evaluation of the value. An examples would be a World Wide Web yellow pages or directory which describes each selected site and provides evaluations of its content. Indicators of Lack of Credibility You can sometimes tell by the tone, style, or competence of the writing whether or not the information is suspect. Here are a few clues: • Anonymity • Lack of Quality Control • Negative Metainformation. If all the reviews are critical, be careful. • Bad grammar or misspelled words. Most educated people use grammar fairly well and check their work for spelling errors. An occasional split infinitive or comma in the wrong place is not unusual, but more than two or three spelling or grammar errors is cause for caution, at least. Whether the errors come from carelessness or ignorance, neither puts the information or the writer in a favorable light. C redibility A ccuracy R easonableness S upport Accuracy The goal of the accuracy test is to assure that the information is actually correct: up to date, factual, detailed, exact, and comprehensive. For example, even though a very credible writer said something that was correct twenty years ago, it may not be correct today. Similarly, a reputable source might be giving up-to-date information, but the information may be only partial, and not give the full story. Here are some concepts related to accuracy: Timeliness Some work is timeless, like the classic novels and stories, or like the thought provoking philosophical work of Aristotle and Plato. Other work has a limited useful life because of advances in the discipline (psychological theory, for example), and some work is outdated very quickly (such as technology news). You must therefore be careful to note when the information you find was created, and then decide whether it is still of value (and how much value). You may need information within the past ten years, five years, or even two weeks. But old is not necessarily bad: nineteenth-century American history books or literary anthologies can be highly educational because they can function as comparisons with what is being written or anthologized now. In many cases, though, you want accurate, up-to-date information. An important idea connected with timeliness is the dynamic, fluid nature of information and the fact that constant change means constant changes in timeliness. The facts we learn today may be timely now, but tomorrow will not be. Especially in technology, science, medicine, business, and other fields always in flux, we must remember to check and re-check our data from time to time, and realize that we will always need to update our facts. Note: Many Web pages display today's date automatically, regardless of when the content on the page was created. If you see today's date on a page other than from a news site, be extra careful. Comprehensiveness Any source that presents conclusions or that claims (explicitly or implicitly) to give a full and rounded story, should reflect the intentions of completeness and accuracy. In other words, the information should be comprehensive. Some writers argue that researchers should be sure that they have "complete" information before making a decision or that information must be complete. But with the advent of the information age, such a goal is impossible, if by "complete" we mean all possible information. No one can read 20,000 articles on the same subject before coming to a conclusion or making a decision. And no single piece of information will offer the truly complete story--that's why we rely on more than one source. On the other hand, an information source that deliberately leaves out important facts, qualifications, consequences, or alternatives may be misleading or even intentionally deceptive. Audience and Purpose For whom is this source intended and for what purpose? If, for example, you find an article, "How Plants Grow," and children are the intended audience, then the material may be too simplified for your college botany paper. More important to the evaluation of information is the purpose for which the information was created. For example, an article titled, "Should You Buy or Lease a Car?" might have been written with the purpose of being an objective analysis, but it may instead have been written with the intention of persuading you that leasing a car is better than buying. In the latter case, the information will most likely be biased or distorted. Such information is not useless, but the bias must be taken into consideration when interpreting and using the information. (In some cases, you may need to find the truth by using only biased sources, some biased in one direction and some biased in the other.) Be sure, then, that the intended audience and purpose of the article are appropriate to your requirements or at least clearly in evidence so that you may take them into account. Information pretending to objectivity but possessing a hidden agenda of persuasion or a hidden bias is among the most common kind of information in our culture. Indicators of a Lack of Accuracy In addition to an obvious tone or style that reveals a carelessness with detail or accuracy, there are several indicators that may mean the source is inaccurate, either in whole or in part: • No date on the document • Vague or sweeping generalizations • Old date on information known to change rapidly • Very one sided view that does not acknowledge opposing views or respond to them C redibility A ccuracy R easonableness S upport Accuracy Reasonableness The test of reasonableness involves examining the information for fairness, objectivity, moderateness, and consistency. Fairness Fairness includes offering a balanced, reasoned argument, not selected or slanted. Even ideas or claims made by the source's opponents should be presented in an accurate manner. Pretending that the opponent has wild, irrational ideas or arguments no one could accept is to commit the straw man fallacy. A good information source will also possess a calm, reasoned tone, arguing or presenting material thoughtfully and without attempting to get you emotionally worked up. Pay attention to the tone and be cautious of highly emotional writing. Angry, hateful, critical, spiteful tones often betray an irrational and unfair attack underway rather than a reasoned argument. And writing that attempts to inflame your feelings to prevent you from thinking clearly is also unfair and manipulative. Objectivity There is no such thing as pure objectivity, but a good writer should be able to control his or her biases. Be aware that some organizations are naturally not neutral. For example, a professional anti-business group will find, say, that some company or industry is overcharging for widgets. The industry trade association, on the other hand, can be expected to find that no such overcharging is taking place. Be on the lookout for slanted, biased, politically distorted work. One of the biggest hindrances to objectivity is conflict of interest. Sometimes an information source will benefit in some way (usually financially, but sometimes politically or even emotionally or psychologically) if that source can get you to accept certain information rather than the pure and objective truth. For example, many sites that sell "natural" products (cosmetics, vitamins, clothes) often criticize their competitors for selling bad, unhealthy or dangerous products. The criticism may be just, but because the messenger will gain financially if you believe the message, you should be very careful--and check somewhere else before spending money or believing the tale. Moderateness Moderateness is a test of the information against how the world really is. Use your knowledge and experience to ask if the information is really likely, possible, or probable. Most truths are ordinary. If a claim being made is surprising or hard to believe, use caution and demand more evidence than you might require for a lesser claim. Claims that seem to run against established natural laws also require more evidence. In other words, do a reality check. Is the information believable? Does it make sense? Or do the claims lack face validity? That is, do they seem to conflict with what you already know in your experience, or do they seem too exaggerated to be true? "Half of all Americans have had their cars stolen." Does that pass the face validity test? Have half of your friends had their cars stolen? Is the subject on the news regularly (as we might assume it would be if such a level of theft were the case)? It is important, of course, to remember that some truths are spectacular and immoderate. Over the past few decades, Michel Lotito, a French performer with the stage name of Monsieur Mangetout (French for "eats everything") has actually eaten 18 bicycles, several TV sets, a few shopping carts, and a small airplane by first having them ground into a fine powder and sprinkling a few teaspoonfuls on his breakfast cereal each morning. So do not automatically reject a claim or source simply because it is astonishing. Just be extra careful about checking it out. Consistency The consistency test simply requires that the argument or information does not contradict itself. Sometimes when people spin falsehoods or distort the truth, inconsistencies or even contradictions show up. These are evidence of unreasonableness. World View A writer's view of the world (political, economic, religious--including anti-religious--and philosophical) often influences his or her writing profoundly, from the subjects chosen to the slant, the issues raised, issues ignored, fairness to opponents, kinds of examples, and so forth. World view can be an evaluative test because some world views in some people cause quite a distortion in their view of reality or their world view permits them to fabricate evidence or falsify the positions of others. For some writers, political agendas take precedence over truth. If you are looking for truth, such sources are not the best. Indicators of a Lack of Reasonableness Writers who put themselves in the way of the argument, either emotionally or because of self interest, often reveal their lack of reasonableness. If, for example, you find a writer reviewing a book he opposes by asserting that "the entire book is completely worthless claptrap," you might suspect there is more than a reasoned disagreement at work. Here are some clues to a lack of reasonableness: • Intemperate tone or language ("stupid jerks," "shrill cries of my extremist opponents") • Overclaims ("Thousands of children are murdered every day in the United States.") • Sweeping statements of excessive significance ("This is the most important idea ever conceived!") • Conflict of Interest ("Welcome to the Old Stogie Tobacco Company Home Page. To read our report, 'Cigarettes Make You Live Longer,' click here." or "The products our competitors make are dangerous and bad for your health.") C redibility A ccuracy R easonableness S upport Reasonableness Support The area of support is concerned with the source and corroboration of the information. Much information, especially statistics and claims of fact, comes from other sources. Citing sources strengthens the credibility of the information. (Remember this when you write a research paper.) Source Documentation or Bibliography Where did this information come from? What sources did the information creator use? Are the sources listed? Is there a bibliography or other documentation? Does the author provide contact information in case you wish to discuss an issue or request further clarification? What kind of support for the information is given? How does the writer know this? It is especially important for statistics to be documented. Otherwise, someone may be just making up numbers. Note that some information from corporate sites consists of descriptions of products, techniques, technologies, or processes with which the corporation is involved. If you are careful to distinguish between facts ("We mix X and Y together to get Z") and advertising ("This protocol is the best in the industry"), then such descriptions should be reliable. Corroboration See if other sources support this source. Corroboration or confirmability is an important test of truth. And even in areas of judgment or opinion, if an argument is sound, there will probably be a number of people who adhere to it or who are in some general agreement with parts of it. Whether you're looking for a fact (like the lyrics to a song or the date of an event), an opinion (like whether paper or plastic is the more environmentally friendly choice), or some advice (like how to grow bromeliads), it is a good idea to triangulate your findings: that is, find at least three sources that agree. If the sources do not agree, do further research to find out the range of opinion or disagreement before you draw your conclusions. What you are doing with corroboration, then, is using information to test information. Use one source, fact, point of view, or interpretation to test another. Find other information to support and reconfirm (or to challenge or rebut) information you have found. Corroboration is especially important when you find dramatic or surprising information (information failing the moderateness test, above). For example, the claim that a commonly used food additive is harmful should be viewed with skepticism until it can be confirmed (or rebutted) by further research. The claim may be true, but it seems unlikely that both government and consumer organizations would let the additive go unchallenged if indeed it were harmful. External Consistency While the test of corroboration involves finding out whether other sources contain the same new information as the source being evaluated, the test of external consistency compares what is familiar in the new source with what is familiar in other sources. That is, information is usually a mixture of old and new, some things you already know and some things you do not. The test of external consistency asks, Where this source discusses facts or ideas I already know something about, does the source agree or harmonize or does it conflict, exaggerate, or distort? The reasoning is that if a source is faulty where it discusses something you already know, it is likely to be faulty in areas where you do not yet know, and you should therefore be cautious and skeptical about trusting it. Indicators of a Lack of Support As you can readily guess, the lack of supporting evidence provides the best indication that there is indeed no available support. Be careful, then, when a source shows problems like these: • Numbers or statistics presented without an identified source for them • Absence of source documentation when the discussion clearly needs such documentation • You cannot find any other sources that present the same information or acknowledge that the same information exists (lack of corroboration) C redibility A ccuracy R easonableness S upport Back to top Support
- Verb Forms Quizzes - Beginner | Linking English
Verb Forms Quizzes Beginner Beginner Present Simple Quiz Present Continuos Quiz Present Simple Vs Present Continuous Quiz Past Simple Quiz All Simple Forms
- Verb Forms | Link Eng UK
Verb Forms العروض التقديمية مبتدئ يختبر متقدم Present Simple Past Simple Present Perfect Present Continuous Future Simple Past Continuous Future Continuous Past Perfect Future Perfect ALL forms in ONE الإختبارات مبتدئ يختبر متقدم LINK Present Simple LINK Past Simple LINK Present Continuous LINK Present Simple VS Continuous LINK All Simple Forms Present Perfect VS Past Simple Past Continuous VS Past Simple Future Continuous VS Future Simple Past Perfect VS Past Simple All Past Forms All Future Forms ALL forms in ONE
- Pronunciation - using the IPA | Linking English
IPA Short Vowels
- Academic Word List | Linking English
Academic Word List The Academic Word List is a comprehensive list of the most commonly used vocabulary in academic writing. Download Coxhead's list, courtesy of UEFAP, to help you with the following quizzes. Interactive AWL.pdf
- Verb Forms Quizzes - Beginner | Linking English
Prezis & Infographics Verb Forms Advanced Advanced Prezi Past Perfect Future Perfect
- Thinking Critically | Linking English
Critical Thinking Thinking Critically Critical Thinking Typical Comments: ‘I’m not sure what they expect when they ask us to ‘critically evaluate’ ‘The word ‘critical’ sounds so negative, as though you have to undermine everything’ ‘The word ‘analysis’ always sounds like something difficult and technical’ ‘I really don’t feel sure what these terms mean’ ‘How can I be ‘critical’ of something when I don’t know much about it?’ Aims of this page: • Show how you are already a ‘critical thinker’ • Clarify key terms • Outline a critical approach to lectures, essays and reading • Look in more detail at critical reading of academic texts Critical Thinking – an everyday activity We tend to receive knowledge passively at many stages of education, although we can be highly critical in other aspects of life. Critical thinking and analysis is an everyday activity, even if we don’t think of it as that. Every time you have to make a decision, the process you go through involves critical thinking, and this process can become almost automatic. A useful example of a situation where you think critically is buying a second-hand car. Hardly anyone would buy a car on ‘face value’. Instead, regardless of your knowledge of cars, you would go through a rough process of ‘critical analysis’. This might involve looking at things like the tyres, brakes, paintwork, lights, and so on. For each of these you would have ‘criteria’, a rough idea of what constitutes good brakes, good lights and so on. After thinking critically about each element, you might ask for extra evidence (record of services, MOT). You can then do your own initial evaluation by weighing up the good and bad points, and decide whether or not the car meets your needs and is a good buy. If necessary, you can call in expert opinion to give further detailed analysis on aspects you are not sure about, and you can then make your final evaluation and decision. With experience, you get a better idea of what to look for and what questions to ask. With most second-hand purchases, we would have a general idea of what to look for because we know what the item should do, and what we want to use it for. This gives us a rough set of criteria for a critical analysis and evaluation. With critical analysis and evaluation in academic study, the key is to start developing ideas about what makes up a ‘good’ or ‘sound’ argument in a piece of reading, or our own writing, and what criteria we need to apply to test this. Key Terms Critical thinking Critical thinking is a general term that covers all thinking processes that strive to get below the surface of something: questioning, probing, analysing, testing and exploring. It is not a negative term as such, although it can sound it. Critical thinking requires detective-like skills of persistence to examine and re-examine an argument, in order to take in all the angles and weigh up evidence on every side. To think critically is never to take something on ‘face value’ but to question and think independently about an issue, however ‘authoritative’ a writer or thinker may be. Analysis Analytical thinking involves particular processes, in particular breaking down the ‘parts’ and looking at them more closely. (Think back to the second-hand car) It involves: • Standing back from the information given and examining it carefully from different angles • Checking the accuracy of statements • Checking the logic – whether points follow each other logically • Spotting flaws or ‘jumps’ in the reasoning • Identifying ‘gaps’ – arguments or information that might be relevant but has been left out • Checking for persuasive techniques, which encourage you to agree Evaluation To evaluate, or ‘critically’ evaluate is to reach a conclusion, through a process of critical thinking, about the value, or ‘soundness’ of an academic argument. Critical analysis is a key activity in evaluation. Evaluation is about weighing up the strengths and weaknesses of an argument in order to decide how much it contributes to a particular body of knowledge in your subject. Developing a critical approach: First steps You don’t need to have detailed knowledge of your subject to think critically. The guide below gives some initial critical questions to start asking in different study contexts. It can help to start with very basic critical questions, which become more detailed and in depth as your knowledge and confidence increase. Lectures • Is this clear? Am I understanding this? If not, why not? • What is the overall theme and idea here? Any aspects I don’t understand? Why? Terminology/language? • How might I use this? What notes are available? • Any idea I want to follow up later? Find related reading? Reading • What do I want to read? How would I select? • What type of reading is this? Is it difficult? Why? • What is generally being said? Clear points? Worth reading? • How does it compare to similar texts? How might use it? • Are the ideas backed up with evidence? Convincing? • Are there similar views to support this idea? Alternatives? • Is anything not covered here that I expected? Why not? Academic essays and assignments You need to develop ‘critical depth’ in your academic writing over time by practising critical questioning of your own and other work. • Examine theories and evidence from authors you use– don’t just state ideas, but examine strengths and weaknesses • Question evidence – what’s missing? Any gaps? • Explore other options for, say, a treatment, rather than accepting the first one you find – and look at evidence • Show the implications of an idea, don’t just state it • Think about different angles – read to find these The detailed critical reading approach outlined next will help in all stages of researching and writing an academic assignment. Critical analysis of academic writing An effective piece of academic writing will have: • A clear and logical line of reasoning, a • A lack of prejudice or bias in examples, evidence and points • Relevant and recent data, • Enough appropriate and reliable evidence • Conclusions that are supported by the argument and evidence overall This gives you an idea of criteria to use when you are asked to critically evaluate or analyse academic writing. The stages below are a general guide to this process. There are several stages involved in critical reading: 1. Identifying the author’s line of reasoning 2. Critically evaluating the line of reasoning 3. Identifying evidence in the text 4. Evaluating the evidence 5. Questioning surface appearances and assumptions 6. Identifying the writer’s conclusions 7. Deciding whether the evidence supports the conclusions 1. Identify the line of reasoning Most academic writing you will read as a student will contain an argument. In academic writing, an argument is: • A line of reasoning • An angle or point of view • A position that is being defended • A case that is being made, backed up by evidence and examples, and leading to conclusions. When reading, you need to keep asking ‘what are the main things this writer wants me to accept? What are the main reasons given for me to accept this?’ 2.Critically evaluate the line of reasoning Check whether the argument contains: • Points and reasons in favour of the argument that are relevant, and contribute to it • Points that follow each other logically • False premises: a starting point that is not proven or backed up with evidence • Flawed reasoning: false connections between points 3. Identify evidence in the text This is usually straightforward. Evidence can be in the form of: • Statistics, examples, case histories • Findings from experiments or surveys, questionnaires or case studies • Anecdote – personal stories and experiences 4. Evaluate the evidence Some evidence is strong, but a lot can be weak when examined. Be careful to: • Check the date of any research (recent? Old so less useful?) • Check the sources of information – do they seem reliable? • Check possible bias in the sources, organisation agendas • Check that statistics are convincing – percentages can be used to make inadequate data look impressive • Beware of words that sound like statistics • e.g. ‘Most people are concerned about child safety’ – ‘most’ is a very vague amount and not evidence of anything • Look out for emotive language and ‘persuader’ words which try to convince you of something e.g. obviously..’, ‘We can see that..’ ‘Surely..’ 5. Question surface appearances As you study and re-read a piece of writing, keep trying to look ‘below the surface’, and question the agenda of the writer. • Is the evidence all it appears to be? Is it relevant? • What is the purpose of the writing? To persuade? Inform? Entertain? How can you tell? • Is all necessary information given? Do there seem to be ‘gaps’? • Does the evidence come from a neutral source, or is it biased? 6. Identify the writer’s conclusions • Conclusions are usually at the end, but can be stated at the beginning, or even in the middle, which makes them harder to spot • Conclusions are usually indicated by ‘trigger’ words – ‘therefore, so, hence, thus, it is clear that…’ • Or by imperatives – words indicating that something has to be done – ‘must, should, need to…’ 7. Evaluate whether the evidence supports the conclusions • Do the conclusions follow on logically from the evidence and reasoning given? • Does the conclusion make too big a ‘jump’ away from the evidence? • Do the conclusions use false reasoning, or twist the evidence to suit a general premise? Critical thinking questions – quick summary • What is the main point/argument? • Is it convincing? • What evidence is given? Is it strong/weak? Why? • What’s the conclusion? • Does it follow on from the rest? • What’s the aim? Purpose? Agenda? • Any gaps/information you think should be given? Developing the skills • Bear in mind you do not have to have a lot of subject knowledge before you think critically. Even without a developed knowledge of a subject, you can still start to detect a line of argument, a conclusion, and whether or not evidence is in place to support these. • Talking about a lecture, essay title or piece of reading with other students is a useful way to develop critical analytical skills – some students develop informal study groups to practise reading journal articles critically and find their skill and confidence progresses fast through group discussion. • Try thinking more critically when you watch a TV documentary or film, or read a newspaper article: Not just: ‘What do I think of this? Is it good? Not?’ But also: ‘What makes it good? How was it put together? What were the strengths? Weaknesses? And: ‘What was not included? What might have been useful? Why was it excluded? What were the assumptions made?’ Try to think from different angles, so that you get a more objective view and don’t cling to your first impressions. Using critical thinking to develop your own writing • Be clear about your argument or standpoint • Be clear about your conclusions • Have a clear line of reasoning • Use evidence to support your reasoning • ‘Critically’ read and reflect on your own writing Finally, critical thinking... • is about asking questions, getting under the surface, finding out what’s really going on, testing things out • is a key skill in academic study • helps make you a deep, rather than a ‘surface’ thinker - able to think and argue independently, explore issues in depth, make connections between ideas, relate them to real life • improves memory, as you engage more closely with ideas • helps you develop your own opinions
- Why? | Linking English
ربما قرأت أو سمعت شيئًا ما باللغة الإنجليزية وفكرت ، "هل هذه اللغة الإنجليزية مناسبة حقًا؟" أو "كيف يمكن أن يكون ذلك صحيحًا؟" الآن يمكنك طرح السؤال. يرجى تقديم استفساراتك باستخدام الرابط أدناه. إرسال الاستعلام
- AOG Advanced info | Linking English
Infographics Advanced Advanced Any Other Grammar Passiv Voice